This is not an isolated example. The manufacturing of specialist components for highprecision machinery requires precise measuring and testing equipment. When building complex machines such as military aircraft, which function under high stress and handle high levels of electromagnetic activity, the quality control of manufacturing is vital. All Russian radar, communication, EW and SIGINT systems, and the production and development of these systems, require precise signal measurement and analysis. As a result, Russian manufacturers of avionics and the university laboratories that OAC partners with all use the products of leading manufacturers of measuring equipment like the US-based Keysight and National Instruments or Germany’s Rhode & Schwartz and Ceyear. Up until 2022, the Russian subsidiary of Keysight – a world leader in signal measuring, analysis and testing equipment – was active in the domestic market and had major defence contractors as customers. Locally manufactured equipment of comparable sensitivity and reliability is simply unavailable.